Scientists have developed a new international food pyramid that synthesizes dietary recommendations from around the world—though with some unexpected variations. The findings were published in the journal Advances in Nutrition.
Dietary advice often complicates the process of preparing a meal. Debates over protein, warnings about sugar, and questions regarding carbohydrates can make it difficult to determine what a healthy meal should actually look like. However, official dietary guidelines from various countries are far more consistent than one might expect.
An international team has consolidated these recommendations into a new “International Food Pyramid,” which emphasizes vegetables, fruits, and whole grains, while allocating less space for red meat, sugary drinks, and white bread. The project was led by Karen Della Corte, a nutrition specialist at Brigham Young University.
“Contrary to popular belief, there is a substantial consensus in nutritional science regarding the foundations of a healthy diet,” said Della Corte.
She worked with 22 colleagues from North America, Europe, and Australia. The team analyzed existing research and guidelines to develop a framework for generally healthy individuals aged two and older; they did not conduct a new dietary experiment.
The researchers compared official guidelines from Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, China, Australia, and several Scandinavian countries. They also reviewed reports from the scientific advisors who drafted the latest U.S. dietary guidelines, aiming for a consensus across nations rather than relying on the recommendations of any single country.
Across all the guidelines, vegetables and fruits take center stage, with a clear preference for whole grains, legumes, nuts, and soy. They prioritized unsaturated fats over saturated fats and recommended limiting the consumption of red and processed meat, added sugar, and salt.
A group of researchers determined the sizes of the various layers using food consumption data provided by the EAT-Lancet Commission, which takes into account both human and planetary health.
The pyramid is based on the assumption that the average adult consumes approximately 2,400 calories per day; therefore, it illustrates proportions rather than fixed serving sizes.
The article draws on data from nearly 300 published sources. Readers can choose between a standard or an inverted version of the pyramid, both of which contain the same recommendations.
The largest layer consists of vegetables and fruits, as well as whole grains and traditional cereals. The next layer features primary protein sources such as beans, lentils, nuts, seeds, and soy. This section also includes potatoes and vegetable oils, such as olive and rapeseed oil.
The dietary guidelines allow for up to two daily servings of animal-based foods: one serving of dairy—preferably yogurt or another fermented product—and one serving of fish, poultry, eggs, or lean red meat.
The researchers recommend consuming about 15 grams of red meat per day, which amounts to roughly one serving per week. This recommendation is supported by long-term studies involving three large cohorts of U.S. adults. Over a period of more than 30 years, researchers recorded over 22,000 new cases of diabetes. The risk of developing diabetes was lowest among individuals who consumed little to no red meat; conversely, the risk increased with higher consumption. Beef, lamb, and pork are grouped together in categories considered to be healthy food options. However, in terms of land use and greenhouse gas emissions, pork generally has a lower environmental impact than beef or lamb.
“Our diet should be beneficial not only for our own health but also for the health of our planet,” said study co-author David Jenkins of the University of Toronto.
The pyramid goes beyond the standard distinction between whole and refined grains. It also incorporates the glycemic index—originally developed by Jenkins’s team—to measure the extent to which carbohydrate-containing foods raise blood sugar levels compared to a reference food.
Pasta made from durum wheat may lose its bran yet still receive a high score on the quality index, as its large, granular cellular structures remain largely intact.
Conversely, if grain is milled into a fine flour, these cellular structures are destroyed—which helps explain why both white and whole-wheat bread raise [blood sugar] levels …blood sugar levels more significantly than whole grains do.
According to the guidelines, at least half of one’s grain intake should consist of whole grains, while the remainder can be made up of traditional staple foods with a low glycemic index.
White bread ranks alongside sweets and potato chips—a distinction not typically made in most national dietary guidelines, which tend to group all grains together.
“What constitutes a healthy diet will vary from person to person around the world,” says Della Corte. “Durum wheat pasta, basmati rice, tortillas, rice noodles, bulgur, and many other staple foods with a low or moderate glycemic index can all be part of a healthy diet.”
The authors point out that most of the research underpinning the widely accepted limits on sugar intake focuses specifically on sugary drinks.
Many guidelines recommend that people derive less than 10% of their daily caloric intake from sugar; however, the research team questions the wisdom of applying a uniform approach to all sources of sugar.
Previously, Della Corte led an analysis that synthesized findings from long-term studies: each additional serving of a sugary drink was associated with a 25% increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes.
In the case of fruit juices, each serving was linked to a 5% increased risk, yet total sugar intake was associated with a lower risk.
This latter finding does not mean that sugar prevents diabetes. The authors point to the nutritional content of the items in question: whole fruits and yogurt provide fiber, protein, and other nutrients, whereas carbonated soft drinks contain sugar and little else.
The authors also caution that dietary surveys do not always accurately reflect sugar intake, as people tend to underreport the amounts they consume.
While this may have skewed the results, the consumption pyramid still places sugary drinks in a category of their own at the very top.
The authors note that the latest U.S. guidelines suggest increasing protein intake by approximately 30–50%—or even doubling the standard recommended amount—with a particular emphasis on meat and dairy products.
In their view, the standard recommendation of 0.36 grams per pound of body weight (0.8 grams per kilogram) is sufficient for most adults.
One large pooled analysis found a link between higher protein intake and lower mortality, though this association was attributed specifically to plant-based protein. The study’s authors argue that a moderate increase in protein intake could help older adults and those losing weight to maintain muscle mass.
The calculations by the U.S. advisory group also leaned toward substituting certain foods: less meat, poultry, and eggs, and more legumes, lentils, nuts, and soy.
This approach increased the intake of fiber, folic acid, magnesium, and vitamin E without creating new nutrient deficiencies—though the iron provided was in a form that is less easily absorbed by the body.
The perspective on butter has also shifted. The authors disagree with the American food pyramid, in which butter and other products high in saturated fats are grouped together with vegetable oils.
Research shows that replacing saturated fats with unsaturated fats lowers LDL cholesterol levels, which are linked to cardiovascular disease.
This pyramid is merely a proposal; its authors reached a consensus by revising drafts, without a formal vote.
The recommendations they selected are not intended for global application, and the authors did not test whether the pyramid’s design actually changes people’s dietary habits.
Several authors disclosed financial ties to the food products they recommend: two received research support from the pasta manufacturer Barilla, while others were supported by groups that promote nuts, soy, and legumes.
One of the authors runs a university-based glycemic index testing service; they noted that the article itself did not receive any specific funding.
“Knowing what is healthy and being motivated to eat well is not enough when making healthy food choices is difficult or expensive,” said study co-author Professor Anette Buyken from the University of Paderborn in Germany. “Nutrition policy should support healthy eating through measures addressing food marketing, availability, and pricing.”
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